Reading list on social democratic theory

Politics is produced by people to achieve the common (or private, if it is selfish and unjust) good. We discover this political production in the transformation of the environment — both material and metaphysical. As far back as antiquity, Aristotle asserted that politics was the queen of sciences, while Plato regarded it as a task for the wise. Folly has no place in political activity, because the price of citizens’ lives and the peace for which our ancestors fought is nowadays too high. Errors in politics mean broken destinies and historical traumas for society, and these misfortunes have no place in the 21st century.

Social democracy has traversed a very intensive path in its intellectual and political development. Its birth within the philosophy of Marxism was followed by a parting of ways with its forefathers, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Karl Kautsky and Eduard Bernstein reached a series of theoretical and philosophical conclusions that led to the new social democracy — a policy of socialism (rather than a policy of building a socialist society). Subsequently, another parting of ways took place — not all social democrats today are willing to assert that they pursue a socialist policy. Such events as the fall of the world socialist system, the rise of neoliberalism, and the dissolution of the Soviet Union influenced the political left in general and social democrats in particular. The discredit of socialist ideas and voters’ uncertainty about the necessity of socializing politics led to yet another transformation of social democracy. A new generation of politicians, such as Tony Blair and Gerhard Schröder, Jacques Delors and Wim Kok, Boris Orlov and Mikhail Gorbachev, Gro Harlem Brundtland and Petra Karin Kelly [Ms. Kelly did not identify as a social democrat (she was one of the founders of Die Grünen), but we believe her values and beliefs illustrate the social democratic current – G.K.], were forced to engage in self-reflection on the historical path traversed and in political conceptualization of social democracy and democratic socialism. One way or another, social democracy and democratic socialism entered the 21st century on the left foot, but, as it were, side by side — in the same rank, but not as one and the same entity. The latest generation of politicians will have to inspire society — which stands, by all appearances, a few steps away from a global post-capitalist world — to create a better world in accordance with the policy of social democrats.

Social democracy, nevertheless, was and remains a policy built on the political principles of freedom, justice, and solidarity [In some social democratic movements, this slogan may be replaced by freedom, justice, and equality – G.K.]. As years pass, generations change, perceptions of the world shift, political theory and philosophy evolve, and even political principles acquire a new, more refined and specified meaning. Yet freedom, justice, and solidarity remain paramount. As you have already guessed, in order to discuss such interesting yet complex matters, we need to master the basics of social democratic political theory. The best and most proven way to become acquainted with it is to read books on the relevant subject.

In this list, we offer a comprehensive collection of books that anyone wishing to understand social democratic policy should ideally read. Philosophically, this list is also close to democratic socialists. And yes, social democratic political theory is enriched not only by social democrats and democratic socialists themselves, but also by representatives of other progressive political currents — such as liberalism. The list is structured according to a problem-thematic principle as well as by level of difficulty. Let’s begin!

Fundamentals

Understanding social democracy, as well as politics in general, is impossible without foundational knowledge and key concepts from political philosophy and the humanities and social sciences. It is dangerous to move forward without feeling beneath one’s feet the solid ground of the intellectual heritage of past generations. For the reader, this means that it is important not to reinvent the wheel that has already been created, and that errors noted and recorded in the historical experience of humanity must not be repeated. This set of works will help a person begin a competent study of social democratic policy.

1. Dahl, R. A. On Democracy. Yale University Press, 1998.
2. Foundations of Social Democracy. Course on Social Democracy, Part One. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2012.
3. Economy and Social Democracy. Course on Social Democracy, Part Two. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2012.
4. Meyer, T. Democratic Socialism – Social Democracy. An Introduction. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1993.
5. Teichman, J., and Evans, K. Philosophy: A Beginner’s Guide. Blackwell, 1991.

Beginner level

At the previous stage, we understood what social democracy is and what its philosophical dimension entails, what political principles exist, and how they are implemented in a society where social democrats have come to power. The following list enriches the acquired knowledge and provides food for further thought on ways to formulate social democratic policy.

1. Acemoglu, D., and Robinson, J. A. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. Crown Business, 2012.
2. Dahl, R. A. Democracy and Its Critics. Yale University Press, 1989.
3. Karlsson, I., and Lindgren, A.-M. What Is Social Democracy? Socialdemokraterna, 1998.
4. Voslensky, M. Nomenklatura: The Soviet Ruling Class. Doubleday, 1984.
5. Meyer, T. The Transformation of Social Democracy: Party on the Way into the 21st Century. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 1998.
6. Bobbio, N. Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction. University of Chicago Press, 1996.
7. Kharkhordin, O. Republic. European University at St. Petersburg Press, 2021.
8. Pevzner, Ya. A. Introduction to the Economic Theory of Social Democracy. URSS, 2001.
9. Sen, A. On Ethics and Economics. Blackwell, 1987.
10. Mankiw, N. G., and Taylor, M. P. Economics. 2nd ed. Cengage Learning, 2011.
11. Åmark, K. Social Democracy and the Trade Union Movement: Solidarity and the Politics of Self-Interest // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 67–98.
12. Ålander, A.-S. The Invisible Child? The Struggle over Social Democratic Family Policy // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 213–236.
13. Billing, P., Olsson, L., and Stigendal, M. “Malmö — Our Town”: Local Social Democratic Politics in a Swedish Urban Context // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 271–304.
14. Lundensjö, B. From the Liberal Common School to the State Elementary School: The Main Line of Social Democratic Educational Policy // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 305–334.

Advanced level

At this stage, we ought to gain an even deeper understanding of the key themes of social democracy: the economy and its future, the development of political democracy and its modern challenges, and the transformation of the political principles and values of social democracy in light of the radical changes of recent decades.

1. Giddens, A. The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy. Polity, 1998.
2. Meyer, T., and Hinchman, L. The Theory of Social Democracy. Polity, 2007.
3. Danisch, R. Building a Social Democracy: The Promise of Rhetorical Pragmatism. Lexington Books, 2015.
4. Olssen, M. Liberalism, Neoliberalism, Social Democracy: Thin Communitarian Perspectives on Political Philosophy and Education. Routledge, 2009.
5. Andersson, J. The Library and the Workshop: Social Democracy and Capitalism in the Knowledge Age. Stanford University Press, 2010.
6. Boyer, R. Democracy and Social Democracy Facing Contemporary Capitalism: A “Regulationist” Approach // Prognosis. Journal about the Future. 2009, no. 1, pp. 91–130.
7. Dahl, R. A. Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. Yale University Press, 1971.
8. Keane, J. Democracy and Civil Society: On the Predicaments of European Socialism, the Prospects for Democracy, and the Problem of Controlling Social and Political Power. Verso, 1988.
9. Collier, P. The Future of Capitalism: Facing the New Anxieties. Harper, 2018.
10. Pettit, P. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. Oxford University Press, 1997.
11. Sen, A. Development as Freedom. Oxford University Press, 1999.

History of social democracy

The historical path of social democrats has been full of difficulties. Only reliance on a critical understanding of reality (which was criticized by the authoritarian left as revisionism), the ethical nature of their political stance, and establishing the main goal as achieving a better society — free, just, and based on solidarity — allowed social democrats to successfully navigate their historical road. Social democracy has lived for more than a century, and many useful social experiences can be discovered in its history.

1. Mulin, K. Historical Landmarks // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 17–32.
2. Potthoff, H., and Miller, S. A Social Democratic History of England, Germany, and the United States (A Short History of the SPD, 1848–2002). Dietz, 2002.
3. Therborn, G. A Unique Chapter in the History of Democracy: The Swedish Social Democrats // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 31–70.
4. Gidlund, G. From People’s Movement to Political Party: The Organizational Development of the Swedish Social Democratic Labor Party // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 147–184.
5. Rabotyazhev, N. V. Realism and Utopia in Social Democratic Ideology // Politeia: Journal of Political Theory, Political Philosophy and Sociology of Politics. 2018, no. 3, pp. 158–180.
6. Plevako, N. The Swedish Model: Past and Present // Northern Europe: Issues of History. 2015, no. 8, pp. 5–20.

Political philosophy of social democracy

It should be noted that the core of the political philosophy of social democracy took shape at the beginning of the 20th century, when leaders of left-wing political parties began to revise the Marxist concept of socialism. Therefore, the classic works of Eduard Bernstein, Karl Kautsky, and Rudolf Hilferding serve as the primary foundation for the reader to grasp the philosophy of social democrats.

At the same time, we suggest that the reader pay attention to the philosophical works of representatives of the Fabian Society: Bertrand Russell, Bernard Shaw, and H. G. Wells. The Fabians expended much effort to intellectually enrich social democratic politics.

1. Bernstein, E. Evolutionary Socialism: A Criticism and Affirmation. Independent Labour Party, 1909.
2. Hilferding, R. The Tasks of Social Democracy in the German Republic // Capitalism, Socialism and Social Democracy. Dietz, 1982, pp. 90–138.
3. Kautsky, K. The Class Struggle (Erfurt Program). Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1910.
4. Kautsky, K. The Social Revolution. Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1902.
5. Orlov, B. S. Ethics as the Basis of the Political Philosophy of Social Democracy. INION RAS, 2001.
6. Tilton, T. The Role of Ideology in Social Democratic Politics // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 499–520.
7. Russell, B. A History of Western Philosophy. Simon & Schuster, 1945.
8. Shaw, B. Essays in Fabian Socialism. Constable and Company, 1949.
9. Wells, H. G. The Salvaging of Civilization: The Probable Future of Mankind. Macmillan Company, 1921.

Political economy of social democracy

What is political economy? Originating from 18th-century moral philosophy, it studied the causes and methods of generating wealth through politics, and later gave birth to modern economic theory. Today, political economy is perceived more as an interdisciplinary study of the interaction between political and economic institutions. Social democrats chose to act prudently: neither giving the market complete leeway, nor subjecting society to inhumane experiments in the form of a centralized plan. To understand why social democrats took this path, we recommend reading the works on this list.

1. The Nordic Model. Embracing globalization and sharing risks. Taloustieto Oy, 2007.
2. Hilson, Mary. The nordic model: Scandinavia since 1945. Reaktion books, 2008.
3. Hilferding, R. The Problems of Our Time // Capitalism, Socialism and Social Democracy. Dietz, 1982, pp. 3–35.
4. Keynes, J. M. The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Palgrave Macmillan, 1936.
5. Crouch, C. Making Capitalism Fit for Society. Polity, 2013.
6. Piketty, T. Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Harvard University Press, 2014.
7. Konovalov, V. M. Social Democracy in a Transition Economy: Goals and Results of Economic Transformation. Friedrich Ebert Foundation, 2002.
8. Dahl, R. A. A Preface to Economic Democracy. University of California Press, 1985.
9. Polanyi, K. The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. Farrar & Rinehart, 1944.
10. Eklund, K. Efficient Economy – The Swedish Model: Economics for Beginners and Beyond. Norstedts, 1990.
11. Esping-Andersen, G. The Making of a Social Democratic Welfare State // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 71–110.
12. Bergström, V. Party Program and Economic Policy: The Social Democrats in Power // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 185–232.
13. Udhner, K.-O. Workers and Farmers Shape the “Swedish Model” of the Economy: Social Democracy and Agricultural Policy // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 233–278.
14. Strömberg, T. Politicizing the Housing Market: Social Democrats and the Housing Question // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 305–344.
15. Wetterberg, G. The New Society: On the Possibilities of the Public Sector. Swedish Institute, 1995.

Social democracy and green politics

The industrial world brought not only prosperity to developed societies, but also severe environmental problems. Droughts, toxic, chemical, and radioactive environmental pollution, and the accumulation of harmful emissions in human habitats — all this prompted politicians and public figures to reconsider traditional industrial policy. We recommend familiarizing yourself with interesting studies by the Friedrich Ebert Foundation, which contain recommendations for developing a green discourse in social democratic politics.

1. Nabiyeva, K. Towards Green Energy: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in South-Eastern and Eastern Europe, the South Caucasus, and Central Asia. Berlin: FES, 2020.
2. Safonov, G. “Green Growth” and Innovation: Achieving Progress in the Transition from a Planned to a Market Economy. Moscow: FES, 2020.
3. Safonov, G. Climate Change and Society: Reducing Climate Risks in the Transition from a Planned to a Market Economy. Friedrich Ebert Foundation. Representation in Russia. URL: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/id-moe/16398.pdf.

Topical issues of today and social democracy

According to some thinkers, after the collapse of the world socialist system, left-wing political thought experienced if not a collapse, then a crisis. It is impossible to agree with the former, while the latter should be defined more specifically. How did social democracy meet this ideological crisis? What was achieved, and what remains to be resolved in the new world of the post-Soviet era?

1. Scharpf F. W. Crisis and choice in European social democracy. Cornell University Press, 1991.
2. Sejersted F. The age of social democracy. Princeton University Press, 2021.
3. Blair, T., and Schröder, G. Europe: The Third Way – Die Neue Mitte // Social Democracy Facing Global Problems. Moscow, 2000, pp. 88–105.
4. Kiljunen, K. Managing Global Processes // Social Democracy Facing Global Problems. Moscow, 2000, pp. 88–105.
5. Orlov, B. S. Social Democracy in the 21st Century: Problems, Searches, Prospects: An Analytical Review / RAS INION. Moscow, 2009.
6. Market and State in the Context of European Social Democracy: Progressive Perspectives on Developing a Social and Sustainable Market Model / Friedrich Ebert Foundation. Representation in Ukraine. URL: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/ukraine/07725.pdf#page=1&zoom=auto,-455,865.
7. Social Democracy Today: Articles, Abstracts, Translations, Documents / Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Scientific Information on Social Sciences. Moscow: INION, 2003, issue 2, 199 pp.
8. Åmark, K. Afterword: Swedish Social Democracy at a Historical Turning Point // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992, pp. 521–540.
9. Rabotyazhev, N. V. European Social Democracy in Search of Answers to the Challenges of the 21st Century // World Economy and International Relations. 2018, vol. 62, no. 11, pp. 15–25.
10. Morozov, V. E. Ideology of Swedish Social Democracy and European Integration / V. E. Morozov; Saint Petersburg State University, Faculty of International Relations. Saint Petersburg: VIRD, 1998, 109 pp.

Russia and social democracy: problems and prospects

Starting in 1990, a revival of social democracy has been taking place legally and publicly in the country. In our modern reality, Russian social democracy is in a state of decline. In order to solve internal problems in the political field of the Russian left, one must learn about and study them. Here, of course, far from all issues are presented — this is merely a starter for an inquisitive mind.

1. Vadim Mezhuyev: “This is a party of culture” // Rabkor.ru. 2009, October 14. URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20110821155705/http://www.rabkor.ru/interview/4027.html.
2. Pavel Kudyukin: “The Doctor and the Patient” // Rabkor.ru. 2009, October 4. URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20090626101023/http://www.rabkor.ru/interview/1516.html.
3. Orlov, B. S. Social Democracy: History, Theory, Practice. Works of 2000–2005 / RAS INION. Moscow: Sobranie, 2005.

Social democracy and shaping the policy of the future

The main goal of any worthy and prudent policy is to achieve the common good. This is realized through means of changing the environment in which human society lives, and is formulated as a process of a perspective future. Competent politics is based on skillful social forecasting.

1. Urry, J. What Is the Future? Routledge, 2016.
2. Meyer, Henning, and Jonathan Rutherford, eds. The Future of European Social Democracy: Building the Good Society. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
3. Matsonashvili, T. N. Utopia and Reality in the Social Democratic Project of the Future // Current Problems of Europe. 2006, no. 3, pp. 153–182.
4. Orlov, B. S. Social Democratic Theory Is Not an Abstraction, but a Basis for Practical Activity in the 21st Century: Reflecting on the Works of Thomas Meyer // Current Problems of Europe. 2006, no. 3, pp. 137–152.

Key political documents of social democracy

What are these political documents? First of all, these are policy statements of international social democratic and socialist organizations. Also present here are documents of social democratic political parties that have historically earned a high reputation and authority among the political left. We recommend that the reader familiarize themselves with them in order to see the points of convergence for the political left at the international level.

1. Frankfurt Declaration of the Socialist International (1951).
2. Stockholm Declaration of Principles of the Socialist International (1989).
3. European Social Republic: Manifesto of the Left Forces of European Socialist and Social Democratic Parties (1999).
4. Godesberg Program of the Social Democratic Party of Germany of 1959. URL: https://www.1000dokumente.de/index.html?c=dokument_de&dokument=0013_god&object=translation&l=ru.
5. Policy Documents of Social Democracy: The New Program of Principles of the Social Democratic Party of Germany: Draft, March 1989: Abstract Collection: Specialized Information / [Resp. ed. B. S. Orlov]. Moscow: INION, 1989, 107 pp.
6. Policy Documents of Social Democracy: Program of the French Socialist Party of 1988: Abstract Collection / [Prepared by N. A. Shubina]. Moscow: INION, 1989, 135 pp.
7. Challenges of Globalization // Paris Declaration / XXI Congress of the Socialist International. Paris, 1999 // Social Democracy Facing Global Problems. Moscow, 2000, pp. 35–51.
8. Materials of the XXIII Congress of the Socialist International. Ed. by B. Guseletov. Moscow: Klyuch-S, 2009, 84 pp.
9. Election Manifesto of the Party of European Socialists for the European Parliament Elections on June 4–7, 2009. Moscow: Klyuch-S, 2009, 32 pp.
10. Progressive Alliance Resolution “Democracy and Social Justice” in São Paulo dated 04.05.16 // Progressive Alliance. URL: https://progressive-alliance.info/2016/05/04/resolution-democracy-and-social-justice.
11. Progressive Alliance Resolution “Living with Machines? Innovation and Social Justice” in San José dated 13.11.17 // Progressive Alliance. URL: https://progressive-alliance.info/2017/11/13/resolution-living-with-machines-innovation-and-social-justice.
12. Progressive Alliance Political Statement for the UN General Assembly “For a New, Fair and Inclusive Multilateralism” dated 18.09.20 // Progressive Alliance. URL: https://progressive-alliance.info/2020/09/21/for-a-new-fair-and-inclusive-multilateralism.

Politics of social democracy and democratic socialism in autobiographies, memoirs, and diaries

Reading diaries and memoirs of former politicians is always interesting. After all, you come into contact with the political fabric of that era, as if finding yourself in the thick of events. Many Russian leftists are at a loss when they want to read something from the memoirs of social democrats and democratic socialists, because during the period of CPSU dominance, everything possible was done to remove the figures of the democratic left from historical memory. Unscrupulous opponents take advantage of this to this day. The dominance of multi-volume editions of the authoritarian left must be put to an end.

1. Rocard, M. Heart and Soul: A Political Autobiography. Armand Colin, 1988.
2. Brandt, W. My Life in Politics. Viking, 1992.
3. Felshtinsky, Yu. G., and Chernyavsky, G. I. Mensheviks in the Revolution: Articles and Memoirs of Social Democratic Figures. Moscow: Knizhny klub Knigovek, 2016, 480 pp.
4. Martov, Yu. O. Notes of a Social Democrat. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2004, 544 pp.
5. Melgunov, S. P. Memoirs and Diaries. Moscow: Indrik, 2003, 528 pp.

Contribution of the russian emigration to left-wing political thought

Russian emigration was undeservedly subjected to a historical policy of oblivion. Until the end of 1917, Russia possessed a much richer spectrum of the political left than remained after the Bolshevik October Coup. It is the duty of the Russian political left (not only social democrats) to continue restoring the historical memory of the forefathers of pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary social democracy and democratic socialism, and to discover in the process of inquiry concepts that are constructive and adequate for modern times.

1. Hessen, S. I. Political Freedom and Socialism // Hessen, S. I. Selected Works. Moscow: Russian Political Encyclopedia (ROSSPEN), 2010, pp. 529–564.
2. Hessen, S. I. The Constitutional State and Socialism // Hessen, S. I. Selected Works. Moscow: Russian Political Encyclopedia (ROSSPEN), 2010, pp. 43–394.
3. Martov, Yu. O. Our Platform // Axelrod, P. B., Martov, Yu. O., and Potresov, A. N. On Revolution and Socialism. Moscow: Russian Political Encyclopedia (ROSSPEN), 2010, pp. 606–619.
4. Chernov, V. M. Constructive Socialism. Moscow: ROSSPEN, 1997, 670 pp.

Social democracy and democratic socialism

Social democrats and democratic socialists are extremely close in politics. Both social democracy and democratic socialism construct left-wing politics on the principles of freedom, justice, and solidarity. This ideological closeness persists to this day. It is important that this cooperation continue uninterrupted, despite potential disagreements on specific issues.

1. Crosland, A. The Future of Socialism. Jonathan Cape, 1956.
2. Hattersley, R. Choose Freedom: The Future for Democratic Socialism. Michael Joseph, 1987.
3. Eichler, W. Ethical Realism and Social Democracy. J.H.W. Dietz Nachf., 1972.
4. Brandt, W. Democratic Socialism: Articles and Speeches. Moscow: Respublika, 1992, 448 pp.
5. Jospin, L. Towards a Juster World // Social Democracy Facing Global Problems. Moscow: INION RAS, 2000, pp. 104–125.
6. Lafontaine, O. Freedom Through Socialism // Modern Social Democracy in the 21st Century. Moscow: Klyuch-S, 2009, pp. 51–60.
7. Shubin, A. V. Socialism: The “Golden Age” of Theory. Moscow: New Literary Observer, 2007, 744 pp.
8. Einstein, A. Why Socialism? // Monthly Review. 1949, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 9–15.
9. Rosselli, C. Liberal Socialism. Princeton University Press, 1994.

Social democracy and social liberalism

The friendly reception of social liberal ideas likely had a beneficial effect on the political philosophy of social democracy in the late 20th century. Representatives of social liberalism have much to learn from us, but we, too, must listen to their political reflections, as we fight together to achieve a free society.

1. Dewey, J. Liberalism and Social Action. G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1935.
2. Dewey, J. The Public and Its Problems. Henry Holt and Company, 1927.
3. Mill, J. S. On Liberty. John W. Parker and Son, 1859.
4. Mill, J. S. The Subjection of Women. Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1869.
5. Struve, P. B. Social Liberalism // Struve, P. B. Selected Works. Moscow: Russian Political Encyclopedia (ROSSPEN), 1999, pp. 412–423.

Critique of nationalism

Nationalism is an idea often embodied in social movements that presupposes establishing the dogma of the nation (as a social group formed on the basis of an identity marker) in politics. In radical forms, nationalism leads to mass casualties, terror, and discrimination against minorities in their places of habitation.

1. Hessen, S. I. The Idea of the Nation // Hessen, S. I. Selected Works. Moscow: Russian Political Encyclopedia (ROSSPEN), 2010, pp. 504–528.
2. Anderson, B. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Verso, 1983.

Critique of militarism

Militarism is an extremely dangerous political practice capable of leading to the destruction of entire societies. Social democracy presupposes the cooperation and collaboration of states and societies, along with agreement on the primacy of common human civilization. At the same time, social democrats consider it permissible for a state to possess armed forces for defense, necessary in accordance with the needs of self-defense.

1. Hilferding, R. Realist Pacifism // Hilferding, R. Capitalism, Socialism and Social Democracy. Moscow: Librocom, 2018, pp. 36–71.
2. Hilferding, R. The Struggle of the Working Class Against the Danger of War // Hilferding, R. Capitalism, Socialism and Social Democracy. Moscow: Librocom, 2018, pp. 72–89.
3. Johansson, A. V., and Norman, T. Sweden’s Security and World Peace: Social Democracy and Foreign Policy // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Moscow: Ves Mir, 2001, pp. 421–460.
4. Mulin, K. Intra-Party Struggle and Party Responsibility: An Analysis of Discussions on Defense Issues in the Social Democratic Party // Creating Social Democracy: A Century of the Social Democratic Labor Party in Sweden. Moscow: Ves Mir, 2001, pp. 461–498.
5. Shaw, B. Autobiographical Notes // Shaw, B. Autobiographical Notes. Articles. Letters. Moscow: Raduga, 1989, pp. 119–132.
6. Wells, H. G. The Unknown Soldier of the Great War // Wells, H. G. Collected Works in Fifteen Volumes. Vol. 15. Moscow: Pravda Publishing House, 1964, pp. 379–383.
7. Wells, H. G. What a Durable Peace Means to Mankind // Wells, H. G. Collected Works in Fifteen Volumes. Vol. 15. Moscow: Pravda Publishing House, 1964, pp. 384–393.

Social democracy and the religious question

The religious question in social democratic politics reflects the pluralistic nature of choice. Social democracy recognizes both the right to belief and the right to non-belief. An individual should have equal access to both religious and anti-religious literature, privately satisfying their need for faith or lack thereof, and publicly satisfying their need not to compel others to participate or infringe upon their rights and freedoms. The position of religious absenteeism is also recognized. Social democrats take a negative stance toward religious terrorism and actively fight against it.

1. Nawaz, M., and Harris, S. Islam and the Future of Tolerance: A Dialogue. Harvard University Press, 2015.
2. Ayaan Hirsi Ali. Heretic: Why Islam Needs a Reformation Now. Harper, 2015.
3. Russell, B. Why I Am Not a Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects. Simon & Schuster, 1957.
4. Warraq, I. Why I Am Not a Muslim. Prometheus Books, 1995.

Social democracy and christian democrats

Between social democrats and Christian democrats, there are at least two key points of convergence: the recognition of democracy and the necessity of ethically saturated politics. We diverge on many questions of social organization, but we are convinced of the need to implement ethical and democratic policy.

1. Papini, R. The Christian Democrat International. St. Petersburg: Nevskoe Vremya, 1992, 254 pp.
2. Maritain, J. Man and the State. University of Chicago Press, 1951.
3. Neuhaus, N. The Values of Christian Democracy. Moscow: Respublika, 2005, 192 pp.
4. Erhard, L. Half a Century of Reflection: Speeches and Articles. Ordynka, Nauka, 1993, 608 pp.
5. Erhard, L. Prosperity Through Competition. Asia Publishing House, 1958.

Questions of political symbolism

In the process of institutionalization, every social movement acquires its own symbolism. Some create something new, while others rely on a historical narrative. The political symbolism of the left is rich in symbolism, and it has never been limited to the sickle and hammer. Consequently, it is important to know how and from what a political symbol is made.

1. Pastoureau, M. Red: The History of a Color. Princeton University Press, 2017.
2. Pokhlebkin, V. V. Dictionary of International Symbolism and Emblematics. Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniya, 1995, 560 pp.
3. Corporate Design Essentials / Progressive Alliance. URL: https://progressive-alliance.info/corporate-design-essentials/